1. Introduction
Canada’s intelligence community (CIC) is a unique and diverse community of agencies and government bureau’s directed against foreign and domestic threats. As such, the CIC has agencies focused on economic, foreign, domestic, and military intelligence. Additionally, Canada is a member of the Five Eyes alliance, elevating their global outreach and intelligence access on par with her allies. Despite the nation lacking any major historical adversaries, foreign threats, namely by China, are shedding light on what role the CIC must take. Particularly, considering the fact that the CIC lacks a foreign intelligence agency focused on HUMINT. Overall, the CIC is a conglomerate of differing and distinct mission profiles in defence of the country’s national security. (Source)
2. Symbolism in Canada’s Intelligence Community
Symbolism in Canadian intelligence is highly decorative, representing the vast historical importance of the services and Canada itself. CSIS, for example, is such a piece.
- Centre: The national symbol of Canada: the red maple leaf, used as a national symbol since the 19th century.
- Outer Crest: A blue and gold palisade, the shape likely representing the protection of Canada within the white square. The colours represent CSIS’s lineage with the RCMP, who used to conduct intelligence in the country. A top of the palisade is the crown, representing the sovereign in the UK and connection with Canada.
3. History of Canada’s Intelligence Community
3.1 Early Intelligence and Irish Nationalism
Canadian intelligence dates to the 19th century, when Canada was still a colony of Britain and the United States was an occasional adversary. In the 1860’s, a US Irish nationalist group called Fenian began launching a series of incursions into Canada. The group’s reasoning was for Irish independence some 5,700km away, believing that through targeting Canada could harm the British Empire.
By 1868, Canadian Prime Minister John Macdonald saw the necessity of merging the existing intelligence services over the Fenian threat. The Secret Police Service and Western Frontier Constabulary were first established during the American Civil War in 1864 to protect Canadian sovereignty and neutrality. Subsequently, both services became the Dominion Police. As such, Irish nationalism and the US Civil War brought about the early formation of an intelligence service in Canada to which the CIC can trace their roots to. (Source)
3.2 Role of the RCMP
Following the end of the First World War in 1918, Canada’s intelligence community expanded because of perceived threats of German sabotage. As such, domestic threats became the forefront of the small intelligence community. This is given the rise of labour strikes in the country and fear of a similar Bolshevik style revolution. The transition from the Royal North West Mounted Police into the Royal Canadian Mounted Police became a part of that radicalised fear. As such, Canada now had a federalised police service. This service possessed an intelligence focus on preventing radicalisation within the country. And, the ability to exert its policing roles in most of the country. (Source) (Source) (Source)
3.3 Wartime Expansionism
Once the Second World War broke out in 1939, Canada found itself in service of Britain as a Commonwealth nation. Much like in World War One. During this period, the CIC endured growth and development both in terms of operability and organisational structure. (Source) (Source)
- Domestic intelligence became highly invested in as the defeat of France in 1940 left Canada as Britain’s closest ally. This led to both infrastructure and industry being valuable targets in the war effort.
- U-boat activity in the Atlantic meant Canada established an independent SIGINT capability. The most notable base being Camp X and the ‘Hydra’ communications centre.
- Clandestine activity became a new norm as personnel volunteered to serve in Britain’s SOE and take the fight to mainland Europe.
- The dissemination of intelligence between the US and UK with Canada expanded given the circumstance of the war. Additionally, so did the formation of departments dedicated to intelligence activity.
3.4 The McDonald Commission
By 1981, the RCMP Security Service was under scrutiny for their intelligence practices. Much of the RCMP’s Security Service activity was illegal. This included them committing arson upon a Black Panther meeting in a barn, as well as destroying the livelihood of Leslie James Bennett over allegations of being a Soviet mole. As such, the McDonald Commission was established that same year. Finding the RCMP Security Service unviable to act upon intelligence. Instead, the commission recommended the establishment of a civilian led agency. Later in 1984, the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) was formed in replacement of the Security Service. (Source) (Source)
3.5 The CIC in the Modern Era
Today, the CIC is a broad collection of agencies and departments, each ranging in supervision from differing ministerial bodies. As such, Canadian intelligence varies in role and functionality given the large magnitude of the services. However, technically speaking, the CIC has three services independent of one another and upper departments. This includes CSIS, RCMP, and CSE.
4.0 Organisation
4.1 Five Eyes
The Five Eyes is a SIGINT alliance made up of the UK, USA, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. As such, Canada has access to SIGINT collected by the other four members and vice versa. Initially, the alliance started between the US and UK as an informal agreement in 1941. In 1946, both nations formalised the alliance under the BRUSA agreement.
In 1948, Canada officially joined the Five Eyes alliance. Throughout the Cold War, Canada’s CIC eavesdropped on the Soviet Union through SIGINT in the northern reaches of Ellesmere Island. Since then, the CIC, through the Communications Security Establishment (CSE) continues to do so. (Source)
Regarding the CIC itself, Canada lacks any solely dedicated foreign intelligence agency, such as SIS or the CIA. In fact, the Canadian Security Intelligence Service acts as a bridge between both foreign and domestic threats. Therefore, the Five Eyes alliance plays a pivotal role in Canada’s abilities to collect foreign intelligence efficiently through its members.
However, within the past year, Canada has faced contention within the alliance since the killing of Sikh separatist Hardeep Singh Nijjar. On 18 June 2023, Nijjar was shot and killed in Vancouver. Since the killing, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau has come forward claiming that India orchestrated the killing. Reportedly, Trudeau confided amongst the Five Eyes to raise the issue at a planned G20 summit in Delhi later in September. However, it was ultimately turned down. (Source) (Source)
4.2 Oversight Bodies
4.2.1 National Security and Intelligence Review Agency (NSIRA)
Created in 2019, the NSIRA are the primary body of intelligence oversight within Canada’s intelligence community. As such, they review all intelligence bodies’ activities and uphold them under Canadian law. Additionally, they also act upon public complaints with the CIC’s activities. The purpose of NSIRA’s creation was because the CSIS, CSE, and the RCMP each had their own independent review agency. However, with analysing activity between the intelligence services, they could not forfeit their dedicated mandates. (Source) (Source)
4.2.2 National Security and Intelligence Committee of Parliamentarians (NSICOP)
Formed in 2017, NSICOP is represented by members of the House of Commons and the Senate. The purpose of the committee is like the NSIRA in reviewing activities conducted by the intelligence services. However, it is not an independent body and instead reports to the executive body being the Prime Minister’s Office. Therefore, making NSICOP an agency appointed by the executive with members approved with legislators. (Source)
4.3 Intelligence Processing
4.3.1 Integrated Terrorism Assessment Centre (ITAC)
Similar to the UK’s JTAC, Canada’s ITAC is a federal organisation with a sole focus on terrorist threats to Canada. Listed as a part of the CSIS, ITAC, however acts independently instead of being responsible to the National Security Advisor. ITAC is an integrated body which means personnel within are from across the CIC. As such, they disseminate their intelligence assessments across both the CIC and police. ITAC’s mandate is:
- Assessing terrorist related threats to Canada and her interests.
- Assessing the nation’s National Terrorism Threat Level.
- Assessing threat levels to Canadian interests abroad
5.0 Core Services
5.1 Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS)
The Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) is Canada’s domestic and foreign intelligence agency. It focuses on providing security intelligence to policymakers which threaten national security. Created in 1984, CSIS replaced the RCMP’s Security Service regarding security intelligence duties due to being ineffective. And, because of orchestrating illegal activities outside Canadian law.
CSIS’s headquarters are in Ottawa, where it acts as an independent civilian agency under the authority of the Department of Public Safety Canada. The agency projects an estimated expenditure of 702.6 million from 2024 to 2025. A sharp rise compared to last year’s 672 million. Additionally, estimates from 2020 show that CSIS has over 3,200 people employed. (Source) (Source)
Despite CSIS being a security focused agency with a similar equivalent to that of MI5, it does not change the jurisdictional powers of CSIS officers. Therefore, CSIS officers may be allowed to carry firearms when deployed abroad. However, in Canada they are not. Additionally, CSIS officers can not perform arrests.
CSIS today collects intelligence both foreign and domestic. Both through all source intelligence or shared intelligence with partners in the CIC and allies. In addition to this, CSIS is also responsible for the countries vetting screening of personnel accessing sensitive information. Other examples of CSIS activities are available below. (Source) (Source)
- Counter Terrorism
- Protect Critical Infrastructure
- Counter Proliferation of Nuclear Material/Weapons
- Cyber Security
- Research Security
- Conduct Espionage and Foreign Interference
5.1.1 Security Intelligence
CSIS is a vastly different animal in comparison to its foreign counterparts abroad. Unlike the CIA in America or SIS in the UK, CSIS is not a foreign nor HUMINT focused intelligence agency. Instead, CSIS focuses on security intelligence. This means the agency collects intelligence, which shows a threat to national security rather than using foreign intelligence to help inform policymakers or the military on geopolitical events.
However CSIS is at its core an intelligence agency focused on national and foreign threats. And, since 2016, through law may collect intelligence abroad if it is a threat to national security. Similarly, CSIS’s role in addressing national security threats has largely overshadowed the necessity for a foreign agency within the Five Eyes.
However, given CSIS’ lack of clandestine or foreign intelligence gathering abilities, it has come with criticism. Such an incident includes the two Michaels who saw two Canadians: Michael Spavor and Michael Kovrig imprisoned in China over espionage charges.
Upon their release in 2021, Kovrig accused Spavor for their arrest. He claimed Kovrig was supplying intelligence in North Korea to Canada. As such, the incident highlights Canada’s lack of a formal and developed foreign intelligence agency which could have protected the two. The other incident involved the assassination of Hardeep Singh Nijjar which has faced criticism of Canadian intelligence in preventing the incident. (Source) (Source) (Source)
5.2 Communications Security Establishment (CSE)
The Communications Security Establishment is Canada’s SIGINT agency and arguably the oldest running agency. The Communications Branch of the National Research Council of Canada (CBNRC) formed the CSE in 1946 after the Second World War. In 1975 this formally changed to the CSE and is under the authority of the Department of National Defence, becoming an independent agency in 2011 (DND). However, CSE remains a civilian agency despite being under the DND.
CSE is situated in Ottawa and employs over 3,000 personnel with a budget of 863 million in 2022. Several facilities dot the city with the main headquarters being the Edward Drake Building since 2015. In addition to conducting SIGINT, CSE also manages the nation’s Canadian Centre for Cyber Security, created in 2018. As such, the CCCS manages external and internal cyber threats and is the first line of defence in the event of such an attack. (Source) (Source)
Today, the CSE provides the intelligence services within the CIC with SIGINT, including the country’s federal police forces, such as the RCMP with actionable intelligence related to domestic security. Furthermore, CSE is a vital component to the Five Eyes, which is predominantly focused on SIGINT collection and sharing between allied members. As such, this places the CSE as a highly intricate and powerful agency within the CIC, given its role and ability to source SIGINT from a wide range of sources. (Source) (Source)
5.3 Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) is Canada’s federal police service. The RCMP, throughout its history, has played a major role within the CIC. Formerly known as the RNWMP, the group had a branch known as the RNWMP Security Service. As such, the Security Service acted as Canada’s leading intelligence service, focusing particularly on domestic security. In particular, communism and Quebec nationalism. However, in 1984, the government disbanded the group and created CSIS to lead future Canadian intelligence activities.
However, the RCMP has played an important role since 9/11. Today, the RCMP could be largely comparable to the FBI as it is a federal law enforcement agency. Additionally, the RCMP not only police at home but abroad too, was involved in Afghanistan until 2014. During this time, RCMP officers deployed with multiple varying units and joined as a member agency of the Afghan Threat Finance Cell, assisting the US in countering illegal financial incentives. (Source)
5.3.1 RCMP Today
Regarding its places within the CIC, RCMP, as a federal law enforcement agency, means it communicates with a wide variety of national services in coordinating intelligence, criminal activity, and security issues. Additionally, the RCMP is a member of the Criminal Intelligence Service Canada (CISC), sharing and analysing intelligence with a wide partnership of Canadian police services, both local and federal.
Today, RCMP headquarters are in Ottawa and employ over 30,000 police officers. Like CSIS, they fall under the jurisdiction of the Department of Public Safety Canada, however they differ in that they have the power to arrest given their law enforcement status.
6. Canada’s Intelligence Community Expanded
The structural makeup of Canada’s intelligence community shares large similarities with that of the US in which other intelligence bodies are found within certain departments or branches of the military and civilian structure.
6.1 Financial Transactions and Report Analysis Centre of Canada (FINTRAC)
Founded in 2000, FINTRAC serves as Canada’s leading financial intelligence agency directed in preventing illegal activities regarding finances. Headquartered in Ottawa, FINTRAC reports directly to the Minister of Finance along with sharing what it has collected with other agencies and law enforcement services. (Source) (Source)
- FINTRAC has an estimated budget of C$62 million and staffs over 372 full-time staff
- From 2020 to 2021, FINTRAC disclosed over 2046 cases of actionable intelligence to other security agencies
- Every year, the agency reviews over 25 million financial transactions.
- FINTRAC is a part of Egmont Group, an international financial intelligence unit.
6.2 GAC: Global Security Reporting Program
Global Affairs Canada is a department within the Canadian government. GAC is responsible for the country’s diplomatic and international affairs, maintaining relations with foreign entities, and promoting trade. Within the department, GAC runs a program called the Global Security Reporting Program (GSRP). GSRP is the country’s only diplomatic program which is focused on intelligence. However, the role GSRP plays has come with issues.
On 4 November 2022, the GSRP came under scrutiny by the NSICOP and NSIRA. NSICOP came to the conclusion within their report that GSRP was a well informed but largely absent entity amongst the wider intelligence community. This amounted to how GAC could better inform the CSE with their cyber attacks and operations. However, the revelation showed that the acting minister for the GAC largely neglected to act upon such intelligence operations, which diminished the role the GSRP plays in supporting its wider community. (Source) (Source) (Source) (Source)
6.3 CBSA: Intelligence Program
The Canada Border Services Agency protects and enforces immigration laws and border protection in the country. Canada has the largest coastline in the globe, measuring 243,042 km. Therefore, CBSA also has a large influx of funds, running off a five year strategy since 2019 to modernise the force costing over C$ 1 billion. As a result, CBSA replaced the Intelligence and Enforcement Branch with the Intelligence Program. (Source) (Source)
The aim of the Intelligence Program is to collect, analyse, and disseminate intelligence relating to Canada’s border security. Given border security’s multidimensional role, this involves both maritime intelligence, aerial reconnaissance, and tracking of peoples leaving and entering Canada.
6.4 Criminal Intelligence Service Canada (CISC)
The CISC is an amalgamation of numerous law enforcement intelligence bodies. Created in 1970, the CISC bridges the gap between criminal intelligence analysis and data amongst Canada’s police services due to their multi-jurisdictional nature. CISC’s headquarters in Ottawa serve as an employment for members of the RCMP. However, it does include secondments from the following forces. (Source)
- Royal Canadian Mounted Police
- Sûreté du Québec
- Ontario Provincial Police
- Canada Border Services Agency
- Canadian Forces Military Police
- Toronto Police Service
- Vancouver Police Department
- Service de police de la Ville de Montréal
CISC’s mandate is to share intelligence amongst its members. They split this into three distinct phases of priority and grouping.
- Category 1: is for police services with full authority to act under Canadian federal or provincial police act.
- Category 2: contains agencies with a specific law enforcement duty, this includes the Canada Border Services Agency.
- Category 3: involves agencies or entities with no law enforcement duty, but may assist law enforcement in their operations such as CSIS for example.
6.5 Canadian Forces Intelligence Command (CFINTCOM)
CFINTCOM is Canada’s defence intelligence, directly comparable to that of the UK’s Defence Intelligence or USA’s Defence Intelligence Agency. In 2013, they reformed CFINTCOM, originally titled the Chief of Defence Intelligence. The purpose of CFINTCOM is to provide support to the armed forces as actionable intelligence. (Source)
6.5.1 Formation
- Joint Meteorological Centre (JMC): provides the Canadian Armed Forces with intelligence relating to weather patterns and conditions for current and future operations.
- Canadian Forces Joint Imagery Centre (CFJIC): forms the IMINT capabilities for the command, passing on IMINT to relevant units and CFINTCOM.
- Canadian Forces National Counter-Intelligence Unit (CFNCIU): prevents foreign entities, whether military, intelligence, or terrorist affiliated from harming the CAF.
- Mapping and Charting Establishment (MCE): provides GEOINT for the CAF.
- Canadian Forces School of Military Intelligence (CFSMI): is the main training establishment for the CAF for those who wish to join a role relating to intelligence.
- Medical Intelligence Cell: was first mentioned during the Covid-19 Pandemic in 2020 and provided intelligence on the pandemics development. (Source)
- Joint Task Force X (JTF X): provides the CAF with HUMINT through operational means and tactical deployment.
6.5.2 Directorates
- Directorate General of Intelligence Policy and Partnerships: is responsible for intelligence oversight within CFINTCOM. In addition to this, they manage their joint partnerships along with intelligence policy and communications.
- Directorate of Intelligence Production Management: responsible for analytical capabilities relating to intelligence analysis whilst also overseeing the training of personnel in intelligence analysis.
- Directorate of Meteorology and Oceanography: provides timely reports on weather patterns at sea and at air in order to assist with intelligence operations
- Directorate of Scientific and Technical Intelligence: assist with providing intelligence relating to scientific discovery along with technical procurement.
- Directorate of Transnational and Regional Intelligence: responsible for providing regional and wider strategic assessments relating to threats and issuing warnings.
7.0 Operations in Canada’s Intelligence Community
7.1 A need for HUMINT?
For the most part, intelligence operations have largely been surrounding the Second World War era through the use of Canada’s SIGINT capabilities. Into the Cold War, the majority of the CIC’s focus was SIGINT on the Soviet Union or domestic security over suspected communist agents. As we progress through the 21st century more red tape appears over our ability to know fully what the CIC’s role has been throughout ongoing operations. Fundamentally, we know that they were involved in the War in Afghanistan and even the COVID-19 Pandemic. However, the pressing matter which academics and politicians have been critical surrounds the lack of a HUMINT foreign intelligence agency.
Technically speaking, CSE is the nation’s sole foreign focused intelligence agency given that it collects SIGINT. Additionally, the GAC’s intelligence program GSRP is the only element within Canada’s intelligence community which collects through HUMINT on foreign intelligence for the purpose of the country’s national security. CSIS, on the other hand, although collects pieces of foreign intelligence it by no means utilises HUMINT techniques or conducts clandestine activity to achieve it. CSIS fundamentally acts on threats to Canadian national security rather than secures intelligence which could inform policy makers and defence officials through elicit means. (Source) (Source) (Source)
7.2 2 Intelligence in Afghanistan
2 Intelligence Company is a CAF primary reserve intelligence branch which conducts tactical and combat intelligence. The branch’s history dates back to as early as 1903 as a part of the Guides Company. During the war in Afghanistan until 2011, Canadian and coalition forces deployed 2 intelligence units alongside them. They provided support roles in intelligence to multiple assessment centres such as ISAF Joint Command and Task Force Kandahar HQ to name a few. Involved operations included: (Source) (Source)
- Operation MEDUSA: A Canadian led operation with multiple Canadian and US SOF groups known as Task Force-31. The task force’s mission was to drive out the Taliban and assert control of the Panjwayi district in Kandahar province. (Source)
- Operation ARCHER: involved the CAF assisting in the training and mentoring of the Afghan military and government departments as a part of Operation Enduring Freedom. (Source)
- Operation ATHENA: was a two-phase operation focused on the Canadian Forces establishing security and improving governance in Afghanistan. (Source)
7.3 Camp X
Camp X was a highly secretive and important piece of in the history of Canada’s intelligence community. Originally established in 1941, the British used X in the training of clandestine agents during the war. Additionally, at the time, the RCMP shared the operation of X and were responsible for domestic intelligence. They had a close connection to Britain’s SIS due to Britain’s command of the camp.
The main feature to Canada’s intelligence community, however, was the Hydra building: a telecommunications relay vital for SIGINT in keeping the commonwealth and allied nations in touch with one another. In essence, acting as a vital base for informing allied missions and training in clandestine activity. Following the war, X remained in use until 1969, with the RCMP utilising it for further intelligence operations. (Source) (Source)
7.4 SOF and Intelligence
Despite not having a clandestine wing in the CIC, such as the Action Division of the DGSE, or the Special Activities Centre within the USIC, other SOF units are likely used to support this role. As such JTF 2 and CSOR would likely be used in this regard, in particular JTF 2.
JTF 2: Joint Task Force 2 is a Tier 1 SOF used to combat elements which pose a risk to Canadian national security. As such, JTF 2 are highly skilled in counter terrorism and direct action. As such, Canadian intelligence and JTF 2 were highly active in Iraq in 2005. The war saw them conducting raids on insurgent groups holding Christian Peacemaker Teams in Baghdad. (Source)
CSOR: The Canadian Special Operations Regiment is a Tier 2 SOF tasked with conducting raids and special operations. However, it is known to support JTF 2 on deployment. CSOR is known to have been involved in numerous operations conducting hostage rescuing. This includes raids in Libya, Afghanistan, and West Africa. (Source)
8. Future of Canada’s Intelligence Community
Canada will likely face national security issues in regards to their geographical position within the Arctic. Since 2023, Canada has invested in their Arctic capabilities, seeking to reinforce their defence posture in the region due to China. However, for the CIC Chinese incursion does not stop at the nation’s borders.
Additionally, internal threats pose a risk to Canadian national security. In November 2023, the court convicted former RCMP NICC Director General Cameron Ortis of espionage in 2019 for passing sensitive information to an undisclosed foreign intelligence agency. Additionally on 5 March 2024, FINTRAC had to temporarily shut down their corporate servers due to a cyber attack on the agency. Currently it is still unknown who orchestrated the attack. Subsequently, both events highlight how Canada is gaining foreign interest within the CIC, targeting both agencies and members in high ranking positions. (Source) (Source)
9. Conclusion
Situated between the Arctic and the most powerful military power on earth, Canada sits within a corner of the world geographically privileged along with a strong intelligence alliance vital to her protection. However, the CIC will likely face rising challenges in the Arctic as China encroaches across the Pacific. Meanwhile, across the Atlantic, tensions in Europe will no doubt place Canada and Russia head to head as the Arctic continues to be a growing geographical place of interest to Canadian national security. Ultimately, the question will no doubt be raised in the future over the prospect of establishing a HUMINT foreign intelligence agency. Overall, Canada’s intelligence community is by its own merit a highly capable and powerful community of intelligence bodies, striving to protect Canadian interests and security.
