The head is the most vulnerable–yet vital–part of the human body, and throughout history, humans have sought ways to protect it, especially in battle. From primitive helmets made of gourds or leather and bone to today’s high-tech, life-saving gear, the evolution of head protection reflects the changing nature of warfare. Each step forward tells a story of survival and innovation, shaping the evolution of helmet design.
1 Ancient beginnings: The Dawn of Head Protection
Ancient people likely crafted headgear from materials like twigs, leather, animal skins, wood, and birch bark for protection. However, the oldest recorded combat helmets, dating back to around 3000 BC, were made from tough crocodile skin—a durable material that could be easily shaped to fit the contours of a warrior’s head.
Evidence of the use of reinforced metal combat helmets dates back to approximately 2500 BC and comes from Sumer at the Death Pits of Ur, Iraq. The Sumerians crafted their helmets using a 2–3 millimetre-thick hammered copper cap, which they placed over a 4 millimetre-thick leather or wool lining to create a combined protective layer about a quarter of an inch thick. Historians have not determined why the Sumerians chose copper over bronze, but they may have preferred copper because it moulds more easily for a good fit, while bronze presents challenges in consistent casting. Archaeologists also discovered gold helmets at this site, but they likely served as ceremonial or decorative items reserved for kings, rather than functioning as practical combat gear. [source]
Similar helmet designs are depicted on the Stele of Vultures, a victory monument discovered in Iraq and created by King Eannatum of Lagash to commemorate his triumph over the city-state of Umma. Portraits of Egyptian soldiers wearing leather caps, dating from 200 years earlier, also depict nonmilitary personnel wearing helmets. Historians remain uncertain whether these helmets were specifically intended for military use. If so, the Sumerian helmet’s superior design provided more protection than this animal skin variety. [source]
1.1 An Era of Transition
Historical records extensively document helmets crafted from bronze, brass, and iron throughout the following millennia. People often combined helmets with more rudimentary and affordable materials, such as leather and animal skins, to create practical and cost-effective designs—a practice that persisted well into the Middle Ages.
The Greeks developed one of the most notable helmet designs in the first millennium BC. Greek hoplites wore the so-called Corinthian helmets, which craftsmen made from a single piece of bronze to offer excellent protection. However, the tight fit and limited visibility impaired the warrior’s ability to hear and see. While extremely effective in defence, they were also quite heavy.
Greek craftsmen made helmets from bronze during the Classical and Imperial periods, incorporating cheek and face plates into their design. Romans adopted faceplates as a distinguishing feature, while the Near East rarely used them due to discomfort from trapped heat.
Following closely behind Greek design was the mighty Roman helmet, an iconic silhouette of the ancient period. The design of Roman helmets varied greatly. Craftsmen made many of the helmets from cast bronze, while others used low-quality iron. Common characteristics included strength, heavy weight, and neck and skull guards. The Romans were most likely the first to mass-produce bronze helmets through casting in state-run arms industries, resulting in frequent complaints from soldiers about poor quality and ill-fitting.
Although heavy by today’s standards, Roman helmets were smaller and lighter than Corinthian helmets, with an open design critical to Roman fighting strategies. The lightweight design improved situational awareness, allowing legionaries to communicate more effectively. Although varied, Roman helmets showed a trend toward standardisation across the legions. [source]
2 Mediaeval Innovation: Metal Mastery and Symbolism
The Roman centurion helmet, inspired by its Greek predecessor, offered basic protection for the face and neck while preserving the wearer’s sensory awareness. As battlefield weaponry and armour evolved, helmets of this type continued to develop well beyond the first millennium BC. However, the next significant leap in helmet evolution emerged during the early mediaeval period, around 500 AD.
The Viking, Saxon, and Norman helmets from the mediaeval period were as protective as the Roman helmets, but they were more concerned with protecting the head and face from blows and projectiles. Yet, medieval helmets are the ones that most closely resemble the original modern infantry helmets. [source]
To enhance facial protection, helmet designs began incorporating nasal plates, positioned at the front to cover the area above the nose and between the eyes, effectively deflecting sword strikes from above. This helmet was popular as it was very easy and cheap to produce. Scandinavian variants often included an eyepiece—an arched strip of sheet metal attached to the nosepiece and rim of the helmet for extra facial protection. [source]
A bell, or dome-shaped crown, was the central feature of many mediaeval helmet designs in the 11th century. Crafted from iron or steel, these ‘kettle’ helmets often featured a domed or slightly conical shape. Like the spangenhelm, these helmets were initially constructed from multiple steel plates. In order to protect the neck, spiked caps were occasionally affixed to its edge, and its lower portion occasionally featured a circumferential rim. By the 13th century, the kettle hat was crafted from a single piece of steel. Its enduring popularity stemmed from its versatility, being useful not only on the battlefield, but also in domestic activities such as mining.
2.1 Middle Age Metal
The helmet design most commonly associated with the Middle Ages is that of the mediaeval knight. Helmets like the great helm, the armet, and the bascinet provided full-face protection, though knights and men of higher status typically reserved such advanced designs for themselves. By 1200 AD, full-face protection with visors had become increasingly popular.
The earliest full-face helmets, like the great helm, featured a flat top. However, these were eventually replaced by conical (pointed) designs, as flat tops became vulnerable to strikes from hammers. At a later time, helmets were improved to incorporate neck protection. The helmet’s design changed by the 14th century to rest entirely on the knight’s shoulders.
The 14th-century popular bascinet often featured an open face, but wearers could add a conical visor to make it ‘dog-faced.’ It could be worn with an aventail for neck protection and was worn by both knights and infantry. It was first worn beneath the great helm, but because it was lighter, it gained popularity on its own. Lighter, open-faced helmets began to take their place by the middle of the 15th century.
Developed in the 16th century, the armet was a fitted helmet with a detachable visor that provided complete head protection. It was more lightweight and portable, preferred for cavalry, and its complex design increased its cost. [source]
3 The Renaissance to Early Modern Period: Decline and Reinvention
Once the helmet made its appearance, it became a standard item of military equipment, remaining essential until the 17th century. The introduction of firearms marked a significant shift in warfare tactics and equipment, temporarily halting the evolution of helmets. Mobility and the increasing prevalence of firearms became crucial for success, overshadowing the effectiveness of slow-moving, heavily armoured infantry. Consequently, metal helmets fell out of favour, replaced by leather and fabric cocked hats and shakos during the Napoleonic Wars. Helmets of the time were ineffective against musket or cannonball strikes, as these projectiles typically didn’t fragment on impact. [source]
As such, the main functions of these headdresses were decoration and rank differentiation. Cavalry units were the only ones not to give up their protective metal helmets. Elite mounted cavalry, such as the Cuirassiers, continued to use helmets and armor for bullet protection. Infantry soldiers, however, wore no hard head protection by the 18th and early 19th centuries. So, while helmets may have made exclusive appearances, this period saw no particular advancement in the evolution of helmet design. [source]
4 Industrial Era: The Return of Helmets
After a decline, the industrial era saw a resurgence in helmet evolution, with steel designs addressing modern warfare’s challenges. When World War I broke out in 1914, most soldiers wore headgear made of cloth, felt, or leather, which offered little to no protection against modern weaponry. The rising incidence of head wounds caused by artillery and fragmentation prompted armies on both sides of the Western Front to develop steel helmets.
4.1 First Generation Helmets
The French Adrian helmet, introduced in World War I, was a critical step in the evolution of helmets. Designed by General August-Louis Adrian in 1915, the Adrian helmet had a front and rear peak for protection and a reinforced comb on the crown for added strength. It left the ears, face, and neck exposed but was practical in size and featured a comfortable leather lining. This design ensured that the helmet did not obstruct the wearer’s vision or hearing. [source]
The British were quick to follow suit with their Brodie helmet. Distinctly gentlemanlike in appearance, its domed crown was surrounded by a wide brim all the way around, reminiscent of the mediaeval kettle helmet. Like its French predecessor, it did not impair the wearer’s senses but provided limited protection, focusing on deflecting blows from above. The U.S. Army adopted a variant of the Brodie helmet in 1917. The hardened steel in these helmets could stop a .45 caliber pistol round at 600 fps from 10 feet. [source]
4.2 Timeless Silhouettes
The German answer to hardened helemts was marked by the introduction of the Stalhelm, meaning ‘steel helmet.’ Prior to its development, German soldiers relied on cloth caps or pickelhaubes—spiked leather helmets. First issued to troops in early 1916, the Stahlhelm was immediately recognizable for its deep, flared shape and extended brim that provided comprehensive coverage for the head, neck, and ears.
Unlike its French and British counterparts, the Stahlhelm provided better overall coverage and was less prone to deforming under impact. Designers refined its basic shape over the decades, eventually evolving it into the M1935 model used during World War II. During an era of rapid technological advancements, various military and non-military units continued using variants of the Stahlhelm until the 1990s, cementing its enduring legacy in the evolution of combat helmets. [source]
During World War II, steel with various admixtures remained the primary material for helmet production. Among the most iconic was the U.S. Army M1 helmet, with over 23 million units produced. While ballistic threats had become more lethal by this time, the M1 offered similar protection capabilities to the earlier Brodie helmet. With a design that covered more of the side and rear of the head, along with an adjustable liner, the M1 helmet was one of the first to incorporate a suspension-type system, offering improved comfort and a secure fit.
After World War II, the military used the M1 helmet for years, including during the early 1950s Korean War. In 1961, the military introduced a modified version with phenol-formaldehyde resin and a 5-layer nylon-based lining, which greatly improved overall comfort and protection against shell fragments. From 1964 to 1975, soldiers widely used these modified helmets during the Vietnam War. [source]
5 Modern Era: High-Tech Headgear
5.1 Second Generation Helmets
The development of Kevlar in the late 20th century revolutionized helmets, providing lighter weight and improved ballistic protection.
The ballistic shell’s composite material construction of aramid fibre and resin performed particularly well in stopping high-speed fragments and most calibre handgun bullets. The first helmet of this generation is the U.S. PASGT (Personnel Armour System for Ground Troops), referring to both vests and helmets made of Kevlar. The first aramid helmets were more effective at stopping fragments and shrapnel and not rated to stop small arms fire despite accounts of it being capable of stopping small handgun calibre rounds. [source][source]
5.2 Third Generation Helmet
A move towards multifunctionality was signalled by the third generation of military helmets, which were made for uses other than protection. A new era of technological innovation in military headwear was sparked by the widespread use of communication kits and night vision goggles by the early 21st century, which required a smooth integration between helmets and cutting-edge equipment.
The Modular Integrated Communications Helmet (MICH), subsequently known as the Advanced Combat Helmet (ACH), emerged as the top option for militaries across the world in the early 2000s. In order to improve upward visibility and make mounting night-vision goggle brackets easier, this second-generation design eliminated the front brow. The side brim rose, creating a flat lower brim, unlike the PASGT helmet era’s upward-curving back. These modifications improved hearing when headsets were not in use and increased compatibility with communication headsets.
6 Conclusion
Throughout history, the evolution of helmets has been shaped by technological developments and shifting combat requirements to better protect their wearers. In addition to offering better protection, today’s helmets integrate with technology to improve situational awareness and soldier functionality. As warfare continues to evolve, helmets will play an even greater role in both defence and operational efficiency, adapting to the needs of modern soldiers while pushing the boundaries of protective gear technology.
