Executive Summary

Some nation states are increasingly employing criminal networks and organisations to carry out foreign covert actions. Leveraging criminal groups can give states plausible deniability, especially in the context of cyber operations. It can also extend the reach and impact of their activities, while not greatly increasing costs and risk to staff. This trend is especially evident in the actions of Iran, China, Russia, and India, which have contracted criminal groups for a variety of operations ranging from cyberespionage to assassinations. This nexus exists in a world of competing law enforcement and counterintelligence jurisdictions, accountability, and priorities, complicating efforts to effectively counter the problem.